LEOs

Since 2025, this project has entered its third phase, with a specific emphasis on satellite connectivity and disaster relief.

The project advances a comprehensive, research-based narrative on the urgent need to establish sustainable international policy frameworks for Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites and satellite-enabled Internet access. Building upon extensive analysis, it identifies unresolved questions of international law emerging from the rapid deployment of constellations such as SpaceX’s Starlink, OneWeb, Amazon’s Project Kuiper, Guowang (GW), and, most recently, the European Union’s IRIS² initiative.

The first phase culminated in a final report accompanied by dedicated policy papers addressing the concerns of civil society and governmental stakeholders, alongside a body of peer-reviewed scholarship, general-interest publications, and outreach activities. A regularly updated International Law and LEO Database was also established as a key outcome.

The Final Report (Phase I) addressed three central research questions:

1. What potential challenges of data sovereignty and jurisdiction arise in the integration of LEO satellite constellations into the global (5G) telecommunications ecosystem?
2. How might the existing geopolitical and economic dominance of developed states in LEO standard-setting processes affect the interests and participation of developing countries?
3. What critical policy issues require urgent attention from governments and civil society in light of the accelerated development of LEO satellite-based Internet access?

➡️ Access the full report here

Phase II: Trust and Data Governance

The current phase of the project examines data governance in the context of emerging satellite broadband technologies and its implications for building a resilient and trustworthy global network.

Particular attention is devoted to:

• The role of international and multistakeholder forums in addressing cross-border data governance concerns.
• Promoting open, inclusive, and trustworthy Internet policy objectives.
• Bridging the capacity divide between the Global North and Global South in light of expanded satellite Internet capabilities.

As part of this work, we have also hosted the Summer School on Internet Governance and International Law in 2024 and in 2025 as well as prepared an interdisciplinary edited volume, which brings together diverse scholarly perspectives on satellite broadband governance, disaster relief, and international law. These initiatives aim to enhance knowledge exchange, foster interdisciplinary dialogue, and translate research into practical and policy-relevant outcomes. For more details see here: 

• Kulesza, J. (Ed.), & Akcali Gur, B. (Ed.). (2023). Global Governance of Low Earth Orbit Satellites. University of Lodz, Faculty of Law and Administration, Department of Public International Law and International Relations. https://doi.org/10.18778/8331-719-9. Direct open access full download link
• Internet Society Foundation. (2024, July 8–12). Trusted Internet Summer School on Internet Governance and International Law (SSIGIL 2024). University of Łódź, Faculty of Law and Administration. https://www.cyber.uni.lodz.pl/en/ssigil
• Internet Society Foundation. (2025, September 22–26). Trusted Internet Summer School on Internet Governance and International Law (SSIGIL 2025). University of Łódź, Faculty of Law and Administration. https://www.cyber.uni.lodz.pl/en/ssigil25

The global internet infrastructure is rapidly evolving, with the proliferation of satellite constellations, especially in low Earth orbit (LEO), enhancing connectivity worldwide. These multi-orbital solutions are vital for expanding broadband access, particularly in underserved regions, offering hope for universal connectivity. However, mere availability isn't sufficient; meaningful connectivity must also be accessible, relevant, affordable, safe, trusted, user-empowering, and impactful. Trust, endorsed by organizations like the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and UNESCO, emerges as a central goal in data governance and cybersecurity.

In the cybersecurity and trust-related debates, governance encompasses diverse arrangements affecting data across borders. Trustworthiness and data governance intersect across all layers of the internet, from services to infrastructure. Despite efforts, cybersecurity remains a geopolitical concern, emphasizing the need for effective governance measures.

To ensure the success of satellite broadband, a multistakeholder approach is essential. Stakeholders, including regulatory agencies, service providers, and civil society, must collaborate transparently to address technical, business, and regulatory challenges. This collaboration involves analyzing data flow control, ensuring transparency in decision-making, and building user trust.

As results of its first phase this project offered a comprehensive analysis of these issues on developing country interests in the context of international law and reveal the shortcomings of the international law instruments in addressing the potential tension points. In its current, second phase, focused on data, we address a more targetted research question.

This phase of the LEOs research project aims to analyze why satellite broadband may fall short of user expectations, considering regulatory fragmentation and geopolitical tensions. By aligning with UN Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), SDG 10 (Reduced Inequality), and SDG 17 (Partnerships to achieve the goal), the project seeks to enhance internet access, education, and economic growth.

The main research question is how international and multistakeholder forums can effectively address transnational data governance concerns and bridge the capacity gap between the Global North and South in the context of enhanced satellite internet capabilities. The project aims to explore international norms, the role of forums in fostering trust, and approaches for capacity building in developing countries. Through this, it seeks to contribute to a more open, trustworthy internet aligned with policy objectives and inclusive global development.

The Internet Society Foundation is a 501(c)(3) US nonprofit corporation organized under the laws of the District of Columbia, USA. The Foundation is governed by a Board of Trustees. Its focus is on funding initiatives that strengthen the Internet in function and reach so that it can effectively serve all people.

To this end, the Foundation supports efforts to ensure that the Internet is open, globally-connected, secure, and trustworthy. It champions the use of the network as a critical technical infrastructure that can bring communities better education, healthcare and economic opportunity among other important areas of focus. It is based on the belief that by working together, we can use the Internet to shape a better future for us all and positively impact humanity worldwide.

The Internet Society Foundation champions ideas and enables communities to unlock the Internet's potential to tackle the world’s evolving challenges.

Its work advances the vision of the Internet Society (ISOC): The Internet is For Everyone.